Diphthongs

Subject Particle (NOM)

The subject particle 'q-' introduces the subject of a sentence. It generally pronounced /əː/

Topic Particle (TOP)

The topic particle 'l-' introduces the main topic of a sentence. It is similar to the topic particle in Japanese and Korean.

Object Particle (ACC)

The object particle 'n-' introduces the direct object of a sentence.

Recipient Particle (DAT)

The recipient particle 'd-' introduces the indirect object or the recipient of an action.

Community Particle (COM)

The community particle 'w-' is used to describe the community or group that the subject is a part of.

Instrument Particle (INS)

The instrument particle '+m-' is used to describe the instrument or tool used in an action.

Purpose Particle (PRP)

The purpose particle 'p-' is used to describe the purpose or reason for an action.

Location Particle (LOC)

The location particle 'e-' is used to describe the location in which an action takes place.

Origin Particle (ABL)

The origin particle 'z-' is used to describe the origin or source of an action.

Goal Particle (ALL)

The motion particle 'v-' is used to describe the direction of an action.

Possession Particle (GEN)

The possession particle '+i-' is used to describe the possessor of a noun.

Reflexive Particle (RFL)

The reflexive particle 'c-' is used to describe an action that is done by the subject to itself.

Agentive Particle (AGT)

The agentive particle '+m-' is used to describe the agent of a passive action.

Personal Pronouns

Interrogative Pronouns

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses, which provide additional information about a noun in the main clause. The choice of relative pronoun depends on the role of the noun in the relative clause.

Stylistically, components within a relative clauses in Eser are connected with a '+'' to enhance readability and maintain the flow of the sentence. This ensures that the reader knows that the components are part of the same clause.

Relative Subject Particle (NOM.R)

The relative subject particle '+el-' introduces the subject of the action in the relative clause. Usually, the recipient of the action is the noun that precedes the relative clause marker.

Notice here that the 'boy' is the subject of the relative clause as he performs the action of 'eating'. In the main clause, the cow is the subject, but in the relative clause, it becomes the object. The use of the nominative relative particle designates the boy as the new subject in the relative frame.

Relative Object Particle (ACC.R)

The relative object particle '+en-' introduces the direct object of the relative clause. The subject of the action in the relative clause is presumed to be the noun that precedes the relative clause marker, unless a relative subject particle or context suggests otherwise.

In this example, the meaning shifts entirely due to the use of the relative object particle 'en-'. Here, the cow is the subject performing the action of eating, and the boy is the object being eaten. This demonstrates how changing the relative particle alters the structure and meaning of the sentence.

Relative Recipient Particle (DAT.R)

The relative recipient particle 'ed-' introduces the indirect object of the relative clause, marking the recipient of an action.

Here, the cow is the subject that performs the action of giving. The boy, marked by 'ed-' is the indirect object, receiving the frog, which is marked as the direct object by 'en-'.

Anaphoric Reference Through Reflexivity

To anaphorically refer to a previously mentioned noun within the relative clause, the reflexive form of the noun can be used. This avoids unnecessary repetition of the same noun.

Here, 'it' refers to some other object, not the cow itself. To properly refer back to the cow within the clause, the reflexive form must be used.

In this revised example, the reflexive form 'dece' makes it clear that the cow is both the giver and the given object.

Particles and Free Word Order

The flexibility of word order in Eser is made possible by these particles, which clarify the role of each noun and eliminate contextual ambiguity. Here is an example of a complex sentence that is difficult to follow in English. While it remains intricate in Eser, the particles help in understanding the structure:

This sentence demonstrates the use of nested relative clauses to create layers of meaning. The structure indicates that a man (marked by 'h-') told a story to a boy (marked by 'd-'). This boy is also the one whom the dog (marked by 'el-') bit, and in turn, the boy kicked the man. The particles clarify the role of each noun at each stage, despite the sentence's complexity.

Location

Time

Goals

The difference between these two sentences lies in the use of the purposive particle 'p-' versus the dative, or indirect object, particle 'd-'. The first sentence emphasizes the purpose: "I bought this because of you." The second emphasizes the action: "I bought this to give to you."

Imperative Mood (IMP)

The imperative mood is conveyed through the suffixes or particle forms '(+e)co(n)' and '(+e)siaud', with the '+e' being added if the verb ends in a consonant. They create suggestions, with the general form being conveyed as more "forceful" while the formal form is more "suggestive".

As a suffix, you can add it to the end of the modified infinitive form of a verb, with '-e' if the verb was consonant final. As a particle, it can be used before a descriptor, you can simply say the descriptor and then add the imperative particle 'siaud' without the '+e' in front. For negation, with verbs, negate the verb as usual, and for descriptors, add the negative particle 'ne' before the descriptor and also include the 'n' in '(+e)con'. In non-negative sentences, the 'n' is omitted.

Optative Mood (OPT)

The optative mood is conveyed through the suffixes or particle forms '(+e)cei' and '(+e)saud', with the '+e' being added if the verb ends in a consonant. They are used to express desires, wishes, and hopes for an action. The difference between the general form and the formal form is similar to the difference in usage between "can" and "could/may" in English.

As a suffix, you can add it to the end of the modified infinitive form of a verb. As a particle, it can be used before a descriptor, simply add the descriptor and then add the optative particle 'saud' without the '+e' in front.

Interrogative Mood (INT)

The interrogative mood 'j+' or 'jū' can be used to convey a sense of questioning. It can sometimes be used to convey a rhetorical tone, especially as the 'ū' in 'jū' becomes increasingly lengthened. 'jū' can appear anywhere in the sentence, though usually at the beginning or end. The interrogative mood can also be conveyed simply through the tone of speech, for example, by gradually raising the pitch of the verb or the entire sentence. In such cases, the mood particle is optional. In writing, the interrogative mood is rarely omited for clarity.

Propagative Mood (PROP)

The propagative mood 'las(ej)' or 'dalas(ej)' conveys a sense of suggestion that usually includes the speaker or someone else relevant to the context. The optional 'ej' can precede a descriptor to suggest the idea of 'shall we be?'. When 'ej' is used, the 's' is often pronounced as a 'z', resulting in 'lazej', though it is still written with an 's'.

Desiderative Mood (DES)

The desiderative mood 'jau' or 'jaud' functions similarly to the verb 'to want' but is used in specific situations where a softer or polite request is preferred over the standard 'jo', meaning 'to want'. It is commonly used when making a request at a restaurant, selecting an option, or expressing a preference. In these contexts, it aligns with the nuance of 'would like' in English. The mood is rarely conjugated into other tenses; instead, 'jo' is used when necessary for temporal clarity.

Auxiliary Contractions

Certain auxiliary and main verbs can form contractions, especially in the present tense. For example, the contraction of 'can' ('se') and 'be' ('es') results in 'ses'. Such contractions are common, though they are not recommended when moods or special aspect suffixes are applied. In contracted forms, the 'ej' is typically dropped for brevity.

Passive Marker

While most verbs are active by default, the passive voice is indicated by adding the suffix '+t' after the tense and aspect suffixes but before any mood markers.

Describing Descriptors

To link descriptors, the particle 'y-' is placed between them. Some descriptors function exclusively to modify other descriptors, rendering the linking particle unnecessary.

Notice that the descriptor for “crazy” modifies the adjective red to convey “crazily/insanely red”. Also notice that the descriptor “very” is used to describe “green”, yet there is no linking particle. This is because “mui” is one of the descriptors that can be used to describe other descriptors. Below is a (non-exhaustive) list of a few of these descriptors. These descriptors are not limited to usage for descriptors and they can also be used to describe nouns and verbs. But when describing a descriptor, the linking particle is not necessary.

“To Have” vs “To Be”

'To have' (vau) expresses possession, while 'to be' (es) describes the state or essence of a noun. When a word functions as both a noun and a descriptor, use es to describe yourself and vau to express possession. It is useful to remember: vau + noun, es + descriptor.

For example, names are seen as a descriptor in Eser.

Copular Contractions & Forms

Copular sentences use es ('to be') or its tense derivatives. They follow the SVO structure, with the nominative particle often omitted.

Below is a table of pronoun contractions for simple and progressive present tense:

Intransitive Sentences

In sentences without an object, SV order is used instead of VSO. This structure is also common in relative clauses.

Topicalization

Topicalization moves specific nouns to the beginning of a sentence to emphasize them.

In topicalized sentences, the object precedes the subject, and the object particle n- is required for clarity.

In the first example, the verb es moves to the front for emphasis, making the sentence more emphatic.

Wh-Movement

In questions, the accusative form of the interrogative pronoun can move before the subject. The copular verb -es is optional in simple sentences.